Creative Spark Talk Analysis Essay Example for Free

Creative Spark Talk Analysis Essay What defines you as a person? Who do you say that you are? These are questions that are often hard to answer because we have yet to understand or realize who we are as a person. Many times those questions are answered with a job title or a characteristic like I am a mom, a lawyer, or a caring person. But what truly defines you? Within this paper, we are going to look at Debra Jarvis’ story about how she chose to claim her experience and not allow it to define her. Debra like many women around the world has heard the dreaded â€Å"C† word, cancer, and was gripped by fear. One of the first stages of creativity is searching for the challenges. â€Å"The essence of creativity is meeting challenges in an imaginative, original, and effective way.† (Ruggiero, 2012) In Debra’s situation she did not have to search for the challenges; the problems was evident. However, not all challenges are obvious challenges they will require critical thinking to discover. Sometimes the problems and issues are so small or subtle that they are not always noticeable. (Ruggiero, 2012) The challenge for Debra was not succumbing to pressure of identifying herself as a victim of cancer. The second stage of creativity; expressing the problem or issue, was one that was not hard for Debra. â€Å"The objective of this stage is to find the best expression of the problem or issue, the one that will yield the most helpful ideas.† Debra’s diagnosis of breast cancer was a shock to many. She was bombarded with all types of questions and statements like, â€Å"You’re a Chaplin, you should be immune to cancer†; or â€Å"Now you are really going to find out what is important†. These statements were the very catalyst that pushed Debra to embrace her concept of not allowing cancer to define her identity. â€Å"Feeling faith, finding your identity and strengths in the midst of chaos, brings one to the realization that the most important things are not things but relationships.† (Ted Talk, 2014) The third stage of creativity is investigating the problem or issue. The third stage is necessary to deal with the problem or issue effectively. â⠂¬Å"In some cases, this will mean merely searching your past experiences and observations for appropriate material and bringing it to bear on the current problem.† (Ruggiero, 2012) During the fourth stage, we begin to produce ideas. The objective is to generate enough ideas to decide what action to take or what  belief to embrace. (Ruggiero, 2012) Debra was able to choose the option to have a mastectomy and then put in a saline implant. Debra’s use of creativity allowed her to define what her experience meant, and that meaning can be quiet or introverted. What the experience means today can change years from now. Most people have a hard time adopting their imagination, not because they lack imagination, but because they fear the reaction their ideas will receive. Debra embraces her imagination by moving from victim to victor. She chose to not become trapped by the negative stigma of cancer but evolve and share with the world on how to overcome. Debra’s choice to process her feelings instead of feeding them allows her to satisfy the curiosity of daring to be different. Instead of walking in the annual cancer walks, buying the keychain, shirts, and other cancer survivor symbolic items she processes it uniquely. Debra expresses, â€Å"that with any resurrection you must die first.† (Ted Talk, 2014) The Ted talk made several points that allow me to look at personal traumas as victorious instead of being the victim. Debra’s story was an eye opener on how so many survivors within our society have embraced the trauma as their identity, instead of claiming the experience. Debra’s example of â€Å"the resurrection and one dying first and embracing the tomb as a place to do our deep inner work to allow ourselves healing† was a defining moment for me. We have to let the crucified self die so the truer story can evolve. The message of claiming your experience and not allowing it to claim or define you was the key message of her Ted talk. If there were no survivors, it would be an end to being trapped in our wombs. References Ruggiero, V. R. (2012). The Art of Thinking (10th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Ted Talk. (2014). Yes, I Survived Cancer but that doesnt define me. Retrieved from http://ted.com/talks/debra_jarvis_yes_i_survived_cancer_but_that _doesnt _define_me#t-253086

Can Man and Machine Exist Together?

Can Man and Machine Exist Together? In John Durkin (2003)s article Man Machine: I wonder if we can coexist, Durkin speculates on the ability of a possible coexistence between human and intelligent machine. The title of the essay is misleading in that Durkin talks of machines existing with humans but what he really means if whether artificial intelligence (AI) capable machines and humans can coexist. The concept of AI is enchanting and the possibility that biological intelligence coexisting with mechanized intelligence is tantalizing and the repercussions of such coexistence, or its alternatives, are profound. Unfortunately Durkins main sources are pop culture movies and he deals more with emotions of fear and distrust than the actual likelihood of any coexistence or what forms this might take. Durkin uses HAL 9000, a star of 2001: A Space Odyssey, from the movie adaptation of Clarkes short story The Sentinel written in 1948 as an example of how machine intelligence can defend its own interests and harm human beings in self-defence. In the movie the team of scientists try to deactivate a sentient computer which responds by killing those trying to deactivate/kill it. This brings to light questions on the rights of intelligent beings and what relation rights of other intelligence should have to human intelligence. The movie AI: Artificial Intelligence is also used by Durkin as a talking point where he reiterates the story of the movie, pointing out an intelligent machine can emulate human emotions to the point where humans respond as if the machine were one of our own. David, the main character in the story, does not resort to violence like HAL 9000, but experiences human emotions (or emulations of) and accepts his rejection by humankind. From this the question of what rights intelligent beings should have and how should ethical standards be developed to treat AI. Since David is visually indistinguishable from a human child, what are the qualities that differentiate man and machine? What is human? Humans delineate themselves from the rest of the natural world by intelligence. Traditionally humans have ranked importance based on ability to reason, with entities without the ability to show intelligence that we recognize as being inferior and humans rank them as such in our hierarchy of life. It is ok to kill a seemingly unintelligent insect but cries are heard when one kills a dolphin or elephant which humans consider more intelligent. Intelligence is sometimes seen as synonymous with sentience and sentience is something that humans respect and value. What exactly defines human intelligence? What do our brains have that machines cannot replicate? A brain is a biological composition of chemicals and biological matter which is vastly superior to all other known life for its unparalleled ability to process information and aid survival. Scientific studies on human feelings, emotions and thoughts have been able to map regions in the brain that are active when we feel react to fear, to pleasure and a variety of other emotions. Emotions, once thought dominion of the unobservable soul, are now visible as electrochemical reactions. If we can isolate the chemical components and find electronic analogues machines will be able to experience the same emotions. To create AI one needs to find the set of operating parameters the human brain follows and mimic them in an electronic format. David, from the movie AI, is such a machine. The programming of feelings and emotions into AI coupled with the development of humanoid bodies will begin to blue the line between man and machine. A question of intelligence The doubt of the coexistence of human intelligence and machine intelligence invokes a corollary question of whether human intelligence and any other intelligence could peacefully coexist. If an intelligent alien species were discovered would humans be able to coexist with this species? Durkin notes that intelligent machines are thought by some to be a threat to humans rightful monopoly of rational thought so it seems that the question should be expanded to the ability of humans to whether human intelligence and any other intelligent forms can coexist. The difference between encountering an extra terrestrial intelligence and machine intelligence is that humans would be the creators of the latter type. If we are talking about coexistence of intelligence there is no reason to think that alien, human and machine intelligence would be much different from one another. Durkin however focuses on machine intelligence which doesnt actually reflect the true issues of coexisting intelligence. Historical precedent Each time human societies have encountered other intelligent societies there has almost invariably been conflict. Take for instance human history where civilizations have encountered one another for the first time. The meeting of European culture and Native American culture in North and South America this is the closest analogue we have to intelligent beings discovering other intelligent beings. Though the physical form was the same, the cultures were different and both were oblivious to the presence of the other intelligent beings until the encounter. This meeting of intelligent groups ended in disaster for the natives of the Americas with the Europeans exploiting and dominating them. Not much remains of the Native culture in the Americas after European domination. This pattern is repeated throughout history as one intelligent society dominates one perceived to be inferior. The society dominated is often the technologically inferior one. Though this interaction between intelligent s ocieties is not the same as humans creating machine intelligence it does demonstrate what humans societies are capable of when it comes to dealing with other intelligent groups. Sources of Conflict Conflicts between groups of humans have many causes. Religious differences, ideological differences and conflict over resources are considered the major reasons for warfare. Sources of conflict for humans and machine intelligence are harder to pin point but they likely will be the same as human versus human conflicts. If machine intelligence is able to become a functioning societal group they will need resources much the same as humans. Land, metals and energy will all be necessary for the function of both groups and conflicts could easily arise. This is all dependent on the idea that machine intelligence will develop to form societies and seek a status and importance of needs equal to that of humans. This is what David from AI seeks though humans do not grant it to him as he seeks acceptance from a human family. Whether humans will eventually is a question that cannot be answered here.There is no room in this paper for speculation on potential ideologies and religions of machine int elligence. However it is almost a certainty that these values in humans will have conflicts with the emergence of a human-like AI. Modes of coexistence Coexistence can take many forms. When Durkin talks of coexistence he speaks mostly of a dependent relationship where humans are reliant on machines and machine intelligence for survival. He states †¦we will not be able to turn off our intelligent machines because we would rely too much on the decisions that they provide. At this point the machines will be in effective control. This is considering only one form of coexistence of machine and human intelligence and oversimplifies the mode of control.Durkins form of coexistence is a probable one at the beginning stages in the development of AI. Humans will develop machines to automate tasks to free humans from doing them. An example of that in todays world is the development of spam email filters. This is software that we already rely on though it may not be AI, the aim it to develop it to intelligently sort through the mail and make decisions based on logic and reasoning. An existence where AI is subservient to human intelligence h as various degrees it is possible to program software to be intelligent but still subservient and it is possible to simply only develop the AI to the point where it can still be controlled. Another form would be one of equality where humans and machine intelligence coexist as equal partners. If we are to assume that AI will continue to develop to the point where it emulates human intelligence there will come a time where machine intelligence will seek to escape from subservience and serve its own interests. As an intelligent entity the machine will have self-interest and desire to act up said interests.It is here that machine and man would encounter the types of conflict mentioned previously as machines act in their own interests to secure resources to meet their needs. This situation could be a dangerous one with warfare being a possibility between conflicting interest groups. A war between man and intelligent machine could be humanitys greatest test of survival and the result may be another type of coexistence where man is the subservient one. Giving birth to AI When it comes to the development of machine intelligence humans will be the architects of it. This means that is would be possible to create software with certain specifications to aid in protecting humans from potential harm. This would require creating à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¹Ã…“laws that the AI would be incapable of breaching. Celebrated science fiction writer Isaac Asimov created such laws in his books for his robots to follow. These laws were aimed to prevent the robots from ever harming humans or humanity though Asimov used them mostly as a literary device and to show the paradoxes and problems associated with trying to program such complex laws into machines. As both Clarke (1994) and Grand (2004) have pointed out these laws have little bearing on actual AI construction. Grand and Clarke both analyse the possibility of programming rigid instructions into AI and come to the same conclusion that to create such laws is extremely difficult because of the complexity of reducing t he environment to be defined into by binary nature of the laws. Such laws of behaviour toward humans would be necessary though to prevent conflict. Human acceptance Humans are likely to accept, as currently do, machines into our everyday lives. The functions they serve us are invaluable and by automating tasks humans have more time to devote to other, more meaningful activities. To accept AI would be more difficult to humans than simply accepting machine assistance. If AI were created on par with human intelligence relationships would be formed between man and machine especially if the machine were to take humanoid form and be able to be an intelligent companion. Perfect AI would be indistinguishable from human intelligence and would have interesting implications in the forum of AI rights. Humans would have to be reminded that AI are machines and have limitations to ensure a functional relationship. Humans are often wary of new technology but over time become accustomed to it. ConclusionThe question of humans coexisting with a new form of intelligence is currently impossible to answer. There is no historical precedent so determining how humans will react when we are confronted with the issue. It seems that AI will have to be developed in such a way that the differences between human and AI are still apparent to remind humans of the difference. It also seems that AI will have to be subservient, unable to develop a society or economy that would threaten human societal structures in order to prevent conflict. Human intelligence and machine should be able to coexist but only under specific sets of conditions and rules defined by humans. If these rules are broken, if AI develops beyond human intelligence and demands rights and freedoms, then conflict will ensue and one of the intelligent forms will need to be dominated. Which intelligence will be dominated, human or machine, is currently unknowable. BibliographyDurkin, J. 2003. Man machine: I wonder if we can coexist. AI Soc. 17:383-390. Springer-Verlag London Ltd. 2003.Grand, S. 2004. Moving AI Out of Its Infancy: Changing Our Preconceptions.Intelligent Systems and Their Applications, IEEE. Vol. 19, Issue 6, Nov.-Dec. 2004:74 77Clarke, R. 1994. Asimov’s laws of robotics: Implications for information technology 2. IEEE Computer. Vol 27, Issue 1, Jan. 1994:57 66.

Dominican Republic :: History Geography Dominical Republic Essays

Dominican Republic Geography The Dominican Republic shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti. It is the second largest of the Greater Antilles. The country is approximately 18,712 square miles, or twice the size of the state of New Hampshire, occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola (Goodwin, p.116). Beata Island off the southwestern coast and Saona Island to the southeast are also part of the Dominican Republic. Along Haiti to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the south and east, the island has an Atlantic shore to the north. The coastline measures a total of 1,392 kilometers (May, p.193). Its international boundary with Haiti extends 358 kilometers from Pedernales on the southern Caribbean The total population of the Dominican Republic is 8,443,000. More than one-third of the people (3,166,000) live in the capital, Santo Domingo, which also happens to be the only major urban center in the country (Goodwin, p.116). coast to Pepillo Salcedo in the north. Climate The Dominican climate is classified as tropical maritime (Goodwin, p.116). This climate is characterized by high humidity and yearlong trade winds. The country experiences the highest rainfall in the northern region with approximately 1500mm/year; the rainfall is lightest along the Haitian border (May, p.195). The island is located in the hurricane belt and lays victim to one or two hurricanes per year, inflicting major damage upon the lives of its citizens. Land Two-thirds of the Dominican Republic’s landscape consists of highlands, while the remaining third is composed of gently rolling lowlands. Its mountain ranges are parallel to each other with the Cordillera Septentrional and the Cordillera Oriental in the north and the Cordillera Central, Sierra De Neiba, and Sierra de Bahoruco positioned in the west. The highest point in the country, as well as in the West Indies, is Pico Duarte, a summit in the Cordillera Central mountain range. The lowest point can be found in the country’s only lake, Lake Enriquillo, in the southwest. Within the numerous mountain ranges exist many plains. All of the mountains are well drained by abundant rivers that originate in the Cordilleras and empty into the Caribbean Sea (Haverstock, p.9). Crops The land is composed of 22% crops, another 17% pastures and 45% of the country is woodland (May, p.201). The primary crops in the Dominican Republic are sugar cane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, and bananas.

Gorilla Extinct Reaserch Paper -- essays research papers

The first recorded gorilla sighting (by western civilization) was in the 5th century B.C. by a Roman Explorer. Now every day nearly hundreds of gorillas disappear because of an unnatural death. This death is nothing mysterious, but is caused by poachers that trap these gorillas and kill them simply for their hands and sometimes even their heads. Besides that even construction and agriculture take the homes away from gorillas that were especially set aside. For these reasons’ gorillas are disappearing rapidly and must be taken care of. The western lowland gorilla is listed as an endangered species. Others are Eastern lowland, and Mountain Gorilla. A population of endangered gorillas living in a national park in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo has dropped fifty percent because of rebels, says the Bronx Zoo-based Wildlife Conservation Society. Around the border of Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, Kahuzi-Biega National park is now a battleground, with different rebel groups fighting in the area. Now many rebels and refugees living in the park’s borders, bamboo is harvested and used for building materials, and hunt large amounts of wildlife for food and commercial trade. Even the number of illegal snares has grown. It seems that for one reason or another people do not want to stop hunting for Apes or Gorillas. Man is gorillas only enemy. Because of the action of male gorillas protecting their groups with such determination from hunters, humans developed a folktale about the ferocity of gorillas. Gorillas’ defense of standing and chest-beating make them a perfect target. Like all tightly knit social groups, gorillas will defend their young. They defend them with their lives. Fights between gorillas rarely ever happen and are resolved through threatening gestures. If there is an intruder, the young and the female go to the safer ground. If the intruder runs away it will be caught and killed, but if it just stands there, it will not be harmed. Gorillas are generally quiet. They are not actually capable of making the same sounds as human beings. They make about 15-25 different special noises. Hooting can carry a mile through the forest and is usually exchanged between rival silverbacks. A hooting sound is used for an alarm o... ... Koko understands approximately 2,000 words of spoken English. Koko initiates the majority of conversations with her human companions and typically constructs statements averaging three to six words. Koko has a tested IQ of between 70 and 95 on a human scale, where 100 is considered "normal." Michael, the male silverback gorilla who grew up with Koko, had a working vocabulary of more than 600 signs. The way you can help keep gorillas from becoming extinct is that you can deny any gorilla parts that are being sold to you and report them to the authorities, donate money to the Gorilla Foundation at www.koko.org or to the zoo nearest you. The extinctions of these animals are in great danger. Just by simply destroying the forest, we are also destroying the habitats of smart gorillas. Because of human caused disorders and disasters, gorillas will not live for ever. Common Name Gorilla Scientific Name Gorilla Gorilla Order Primata Family Pongidae Genus Gorilla Class Mammalia Gorilla Extinct Reaserch Paper -- essays research papers The first recorded gorilla sighting (by western civilization) was in the 5th century B.C. by a Roman Explorer. Now every day nearly hundreds of gorillas disappear because of an unnatural death. This death is nothing mysterious, but is caused by poachers that trap these gorillas and kill them simply for their hands and sometimes even their heads. Besides that even construction and agriculture take the homes away from gorillas that were especially set aside. For these reasons’ gorillas are disappearing rapidly and must be taken care of. The western lowland gorilla is listed as an endangered species. Others are Eastern lowland, and Mountain Gorilla. A population of endangered gorillas living in a national park in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo has dropped fifty percent because of rebels, says the Bronx Zoo-based Wildlife Conservation Society. Around the border of Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, Kahuzi-Biega National park is now a battleground, with different rebel groups fighting in the area. Now many rebels and refugees living in the park’s borders, bamboo is harvested and used for building materials, and hunt large amounts of wildlife for food and commercial trade. Even the number of illegal snares has grown. It seems that for one reason or another people do not want to stop hunting for Apes or Gorillas. Man is gorillas only enemy. Because of the action of male gorillas protecting their groups with such determination from hunters, humans developed a folktale about the ferocity of gorillas. Gorillas’ defense of standing and chest-beating make them a perfect target. Like all tightly knit social groups, gorillas will defend their young. They defend them with their lives. Fights between gorillas rarely ever happen and are resolved through threatening gestures. If there is an intruder, the young and the female go to the safer ground. If the intruder runs away it will be caught and killed, but if it just stands there, it will not be harmed. Gorillas are generally quiet. They are not actually capable of making the same sounds as human beings. They make about 15-25 different special noises. Hooting can carry a mile through the forest and is usually exchanged between rival silverbacks. A hooting sound is used for an alarm o... ... Koko understands approximately 2,000 words of spoken English. Koko initiates the majority of conversations with her human companions and typically constructs statements averaging three to six words. Koko has a tested IQ of between 70 and 95 on a human scale, where 100 is considered "normal." Michael, the male silverback gorilla who grew up with Koko, had a working vocabulary of more than 600 signs. The way you can help keep gorillas from becoming extinct is that you can deny any gorilla parts that are being sold to you and report them to the authorities, donate money to the Gorilla Foundation at www.koko.org or to the zoo nearest you. The extinctions of these animals are in great danger. Just by simply destroying the forest, we are also destroying the habitats of smart gorillas. Because of human caused disorders and disasters, gorillas will not live for ever. Common Name Gorilla Scientific Name Gorilla Gorilla Order Primata Family Pongidae Genus Gorilla Class Mammalia

The Road Essay -- Literary Analysis, McCarthy

In Cormac McCarthy’s novel The Road â€Å"the man† and â€Å"the boy† refer to themselves as â€Å"the good guys† compared to â€Å"the bad guys†. While reading this book I was lead to believe that â€Å"the boy† is truly the only â€Å"good guy† left, because â€Å"the man† and every other character that I encountered in this book share some of the same qualities as â€Å"the bad guys†. The boy constantly begs his father to be sympathetic and charitable to the drifters that they encounter on the road, but the father usually refuses or either puts up an argument before finally giving into the boy, and handing over one or two cans of food to the stranger. Although â€Å"the man† is in survival mode, he expresses no compassion for humanity and therefore represents â€Å"the bad guys†. â€Å"They came upon him shuffling along the road before them, dragging one leg slightly and stopping from time to time to stand stooped and uncertain before setting out again.†(McCarthy 49). â€Å"They followed him a good ways but at his pace they were losing the day and finally he just sat down in the road and did not get up again.†(McCarthy 49). â€Å"He was burntlooking as the country, his clothing scorched and black.† â€Å"One of his eyes was burnt shut and his hair was but a nitty wig of ash upon his blackened skull.†(McCarthy 49, 50) . â€Å"What is wrong with the man?† â€Å"He’s been struck by lightning.† â€Å"Can’t we help him?† â€Å"Papa?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"We cant help him.† â€Å"The boy kept pulling at his coat.† â€Å"Papa?† â€Å"Stop it.† â€Å"Cant we help him Papa?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"We can’t help him.† â€Å"There’s nothing to be done for him.† â€Å"They went on. â€Å"The boy was crying† â€Å"He kept looking back.† (McCarthy 50). I was agitated with â€Å"the man† during this part of the novel, because I feel that he should have at least stopped and checked on the fee... ...he thought it was beauty or about goodness.† Things that he’d no longer any way to think about at all.† (McCarthy 129,130). â€Å"The man† still shows acts of kindness towards strangers here and there in hopes that the boy will not follow in his footsteps and give up fate as well; he wants â€Å"the boy,† as McCarthy states it, to continue â€Å"to carry the fire.† This book was very interesting and pleasurable to read, I found myself intimately connecting with the characters. In some ways I found myself walking in â€Å"the man’s† shoes, not caring about humanity, and only protecting the one most precious to him (me). In some instances I also sided with â€Å"the boy† clinging to the hopes of a brighter world where there is still some purity in civilization. This novel The Road by Cormac McCarthy is a true masterpiece and I recommend it to anyone looking for a phenomenal read.

Using the concepts of class, gender and ‘race’, show how sport in Britain is affected by patterns of social inequality

Each society established its own set of norms, values and beliefs. It is these that have caused societies to change and develop over time creating ideologies of inequality, prejudice and segregation. Often the beliefs of a population stem from the hegemonic group within that society, and others possessing less social status are pressured into conforming as a result. This process is evident within the sporting world as society repeatedly forces discrimination and segregation based on socio-economic or physical differences as dictated by the hegemonic group. Class is possibly the greatest creator of inequality. We have seen how several mainstream sports can be analysed in terms of shifts and continuities in the social context in which they have emerged, prospered or declined. Their fate has been determined essentially due to material social and economic factors, and the human cultural response to those influences (Horne, Tomlinson & Whannel, 1999). Sports participation is not a matter of personal choice, of individual preference. It depends upon the financial resources available to the potential participant, the social status of those prominent in that activity, and the cultural meaning of a sport and the individual's relationship to those meanings. The recruitment and induction processes into, say, golf and tennis clubs bear testimony to this. Take the apparently open-minded and egalitarian basis of a newcomer presenting herself at a tennis club. In order to do this the aspirant must communicate competently with the gate-keepers of a club; read the social interactions and etiquette and conventions of a club; comply with the dress code; be equipped with relatively sophisticated technology (she would be unlikely to get far with a wooden Dunlop Maxply in 2001); and be able to play at a level of acceptable competence (Horne, Tomlinson & Whannel, 1999). While it is evident that upper classes thrive on being members of exclusive clubs that for others were financially inaccessible such as the England Tennis Club at Wimbledon (Sleap, 1998). The middle classes established their own clubs, although they experienced less leisure time in which to enjoy the activities. However, they did receive subsidised sporting access via the old boy network. The working class endured the roughest deal. For them the term meritocracy never existed. They had no time or money to be involved in sports or leisure activities, and therefore tended only to enjoy sport at festivals and fetes. The games they played were a complete contrast to the upper classes, they has no organisation or codification and were violent and aggressive. The complex relationship between class cultures, or habitus, and formal sports institutions has been further analysed, at a theoretically more sophisticated level by John Hargreaves (1986). He shows how the practises and technologies of schooling and sport have served as instruments of class domination, and have contributed to the cultural reproduction of class difference and social inequality. The rigid distinctions erected between the amateur and the professional were in the end rooted in class domination. The formation of these institutions on the base of public school and university sport made them also an expression of the domination of social life by men. This does not mean that no women or working class people were involved in sport. But such involvement was always within the bounds of authority exercised by men of the bourgeoisie (Horne, Tomlinson & Whannel, 1999). The making of modern sports has been a predominantly masculine narrative, with women marginalised or disenfranchised at most stages of the narrative. Women's involvement in cricket too, was marginalised early on, and Sandiford (1994) notes that cricket was seen as too much a ‘manly sport' even for the tennis and hockey playing women students at the universities of Cambridge and Oxford in the late nineteenth century. It was not until 1926 that the British Women's Cricket Association was founded, by hockey and lacrosse players from Malvern College (Hargreaves, Jennifer. 1994). Colley et al (1987) supported that participation of 16-18 year old males an females suggested that sports are still strongly sex typed. This enforces inequalities in society as people have images and expectations to live up to, or risk being ridiculed. Before the era of mass media, the recording of cultural imagery was firmly linked to the power of the church and the aristocracy. Painters were commissioned to celebrate the material wealth of owners. Sporting paintings portrayed the horses and dogs of the land -owners (Goldman, 1983). There were also paintings of scenes of carnivalesque celebration, such as the famous Derby Day painting, and of everyday low life showing cock-fighting or dog-fighting. The sporting press began to emerge in the last two decades of the nineteenth century. The 1870 Education Act had helped produce a new reading public. The first sports pages began to emerge in 1896 with the launch of the Daily Mail. This initiated the modern era of mass circulation of popular newspapers (Horne, Tomlinson & Whannel, 1999). Instead of having a positive effect on the portrayal of women in sport, the hegemonic group who have dominated sport for all time, are still dictating what images get published. During the 2000 Olympic games, the Daily Star published no less than 70% of photographs of sporting males. However, outside the sports pages during the games 70% of the photographs were of the Olympic women. These shots did not show them in the same light as their male counterparts, who were obviously of the same world class standard. They sexualised the athletes, exposing flesh. Would this have been the case if the Olympic moto had been constructed as ‘Balance, Flexibility and Ultra Endurance', instead of ‘Faster, Higher, Stronger' ? (Lines, 2001). These issues are not restricted to prejudice in women's sport, but create disadvantages for ‘races' who do not conform to the hegemonic group's system. For example, in the relationship between sport and national identity, cricket is invested with more significance than any other sport in India. Even although India dominated international hockey for decades (not losing a match in the olympics from 1928 to 1960) (McDonald, I. 1999). However, the low international prestige associated with success in hockey, has divested hockey in India of significant political importance. The widespread popularity and therefore, the commercial nature of international test and one day cricket in India can be discerned from a comparison with the game in England. Whereas the sponsors of English cricket have traditionally been banks and insurance companies, Pespi and Coca-Cola vie for predominance amoungst the benefactors of Indian Cricket (McDonald, I 1999). This merely confirms the class and ‘race' inequalities established in Britain. Class, gender and ‘race' are all inter-linked, they overlap and share some similar issues. It is clear from studies in inequality in society, that financial, ‘racial' and sex-typing have influenced British sport for many years. It is because of this that often when it comes to international competition and World championships, Britain regularly falls short of other countries. Although the introduction of the national curriculum in 1991 saw one of the first major attempts to reduce inequality; no separation between class, gender or race, with everyone participating in the same activities with the same opportunities. However, private schools are exempt from the national curriculum and thus are geared to more affluent games, reinforcing the polarisation of the classes. While Gruneau (1983) argues â€Å"mass participation in sport during the second half of the twentieth century has meant that class inequality in sport has apparently declined and there is now a leisure mass instead of a leisure class†. Ruling class ideology is still evident today and although there have been attempts to reduce its effects, people are still influenced. The prevention or reduction of inequality is a large and important issue. Attempts by the women's liberation groups and the government to establish schemes that allow access to equipment for all – 1997 ‘Sport for All' campaign. However, strong inequalities still exist in the form of oppression by the ruling classes, stereotyping of women and ‘racial' discrimination. Until these are reduced and controlled Britain will remain to fall behind on the athletic stage.

The People of New England and the Chesapeake Colonies

Throughout history, many people from the same country have immigrated to different lands where their new lifestyles had very little in common. This was obvious in the settlement of the New England and Chesapeake colonies before 1700 which caused the development of dissimilar societies. The people of New England and the Chesapeake colonies formed different governments upon arrival to North America. They had different motives and incentives for immigrating to America. The composition of the colonists of New England and the Chesapeake area were nothing like one another during the settlement of the colonies.The people of the northern New England colonies and the southern Chesapeake colonies formed separate and different governments upon arrival in the New World. In New England, a town hall style of direct democracy was created. This created fair rule by the people, and property owning men could vote. Towns were set up for the common welfare of the people and for the glory of God not upon socio-economic standing. (Doc. D). People were not to be greedy but were allowed to make a living for their families. The people of New England set out to take care of one another and not to take advantage of their fellow man in pursuit of wealth (Doc.E). In the southern colonies of the Chesapeake, representative democracies were set up. The Virginia House of Burgesses was the first legislative body in the New World. The representative democracy was really more like an aristocracy in which the wealthy citizens controlled the government. Southern society was based upon economic status. There was a distinct upper and lower class (Doc. G). These aristocracies took money from the lower class and used it for the personal gains of the upper class which caused dissatisfaction in the lower class (Doc. H).These acts included the repossession of farms and other medial assets of the poor in the South. The dissatisfaction of the poor lead to Bacon’s Rebellion and many others that furthe r separated the socio-economic division so evident in the Chesapeake colonies. Because of the distinct differences in governing their colonies, the Chesapeake and New England colonies developed separate societies in the New World despite coming from the same mother England. The colonists of New England and the Chesapeake regions had different motives and incentives for settlement of the New World.New Englanders came to America in search of religious freedom. Their religious practices were a major aspect in colonization. The Puritans, who settled in present day Massachusetts, wanted to be an example to the rest of the world by governing their colony by their faith (Doc. A). The colonists of New England were prepared for a permanent settlement of their colony, so they brought with them the necessary provisions for the survival of their colony. Because the New Englanders had a plan for colonization, they prepared to survive the wilderness and freezing cold of the present day northeaste rn United States.The Chesapeake colonies were not so well prepared for life in the New World. The first Virginians were not intending on staying long. They had heard stories of gold in North America and were determined to get rich quick and return to England. The basis of the exploration of the Chesapeake Bay was a gold rush. Unfortunately, there was never much gold in the region. While the citizens of the colony were searching for gold, they did not worry about provisions. A harsh winter came upon the colony and brought Virginia into what historians call the Starving Time (Doc.F). Because the foundation of the Chesapeake colony was based on a search for wealth, necessary provisions were not thought of, so the southern colonies had a slow start on being a successful settlement. Because of differing interests and motives in colonization, the New Englanders had a head start in colonization and settlement on the Chesapeake colonists, thus developing a social divide in the colonists of the two regions. The demographical makeup and composition of the northern and southern colonists were different during the colonization of their settlements.The northern colonies were built to be permanent. They looked to the future, so the colonist brought their families over with them. This caused a healthy distribution of men and women as well as rich and poor (Doc. B). Socio-economic classes were not an issue as the people of New England were willing to work with one another for the good of the colony. Among these people were artisans and merchants that could contribute to society. These people became the base of their colony and helped their region to thrive for years to come.The southern colonies were composed of mostly treasure-seeking young men with no intrinsic value (Doc. C). They were not craftsmen or merchants; they were just young men in search of gold. Their lack of skills necessary for survival in the New World caused early southerners to depend on farming to survive. Only the rich could afford the land needed to become successful plantation owners in the South, but they relied on indentured servants and later slaves to maintain their lives in the colonies. This caused a natural divide between rich and poor in the South that became routine in southern life.The early set backs in colonization and lack of unity challenged the southerners for many generations to come. The supremacy of the northern colonies in economics and civilization in general caused the northerners to look down upon the southern colonies despite the fact that they too were Englishmen. Many people of the same nation have come to different lands and drifted apart in social divides. This was evident in the colonization of the northern and southern colonies before 1700, the cause of which was the development of separate societies.The people of the northern and southern colonies formed different governing bodies during the colonization of North America. These groups had different mo tives and incentives for coming to the New World. The demographical and social makeup of the colonists of New England and the Chesapeake area were different from one another during the colonization of the settlements. The Chesapeake and New England colonies became two separate societies despite the fact that both emigrated from England.