Austin Museum Of Art :: essays research papers

The Austin Museum of Art was the first of the three galleries attended. At the time, the museum had a touring â€Å"Rock and Roll† exhibit, which had its focus on the influence of the Rock –and-Roll culture on art. The pieces were arranged in a chronological order and started with the Pop Art of the early 1960’s. Located in the section were two silk screens, one of Mick Jaggard and the other of Prince, done by Andy Warhol. There were a few other pieces in this time period that helped to point out a major turning point in both art and photography. It was now okay to use other people’s photographs in an art piece. Also, it symbolized a beginning of the manipulation of the photograph. No longer were the artists bound to having their work on paper, there were new and limitless areas to explore now in photography. These were the main works that caught my attention in the museum, but there were many other pieces. Other works went through the abstract and full of color 1960’s, until the newer more mechanical art of the 1980’s and 90’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After attending the Austin Museum of Art, the students headed for a smaller, more informal gallery. The Dumont Gallery contained works from various photographers that were entered into a contest earlier in the year. Now the pictures were traveling around the state of Texas, and had even made a stop at the MSC in College Station. The pieces in the exhibit made visible the numerous ways in which art and photography can be presented. There were huge photographs, Polaroids, pictures developed onto clothing, series photographs, bound pictures, and a large amount whose methods of production could not be identified. There was one group of photographs done by the same artist that truly caught my attention. The artist, while a young woman did not have a very interesting life, and often sought refuge in the Nancy Drew mystery novels. Now, she has often caught herself talking to people about her life and actually telling the events that happened in the books instead of her l ife. It was because of those events that she did a series of photographs were she dressed up like Nancy Drew and posed in her pictures that played out the different stories from the books. She decided, why not be her if you think you are her.

capital punishment Essay -- essays research papers

The Ineffectiveness of Capital Punishment For many years, capital punishment has been in use, but it is not been effective. Theodore Robert Bundy in 1978, slipped into a Tallahassee sorority house and bludgeoned two sleeping women to death, then killed a 12-year-old girl in Lake City. He was sentenced to three concurrent death sentences in 1979. Nine years later, Bundy is alive and well on the Death Row (Von Drehle 1A). A prisoner sentenced to death spends an average of 10 years, nationally, on death row waiting for their execution. More than 2,100 people live on America's death Rows. At the current execution rate, it would take eighty-two years to kill them all. Death Row is going to get bigger, the wait for execution is sure to get longer, and the cost is bound to get higher. At this rate, it seems that capital punishment will never become a reasonable or efficient means of controlling violent crime. Charles Proffitt murdered Joel Medgebow by stabbing a bread knife into Joel's chest while he was sleeping, an act well determined to be premeditated in the case’s court sessions. Three years after the crime was committed, using Profitt vs. Florida as its test case, the US Supreme Court officially gave its support to Florida's death penalty. "Profitt could be dead in six months", said Attorney General Robert Shevin (von Drehle 1A). Today, 15 years after his heinous crime, Charles is still alive and well, and living off of the money paid by Florida state tax payers, as should be well noted. He is sewing uniforms at the Florida's state prison. The Supreme Court commuted his sentence last year to life in prison. The state of Florida spent five hundred thousand dollars in one decade to bring Proffitt to justice and half of that was spent to send Proffitt to the his death in the electric chair. The death penalty is slow and weak. It actually ends up costing much more than life in prison without parole, and all of that cost coming from tax payers’ money. It has cost Florida at least fifty-seven million dollars since 1973 to achieve eighteen executions. There is an average cost of three million two hundred thousand dollars per execution (Miami Herald, July 10, 1988). Thirty-six inmates on the Florida's death row have been there more than 10 years. Florida's senior De... ...onvicted murderer fears a life in prison more than he does a swift execution. Hence, if the threat of being killed for killing someone isn’t as great a detereent of these violent crimes as the threat of spending the rest of your life in a jail cell, then why even consider the death penalty? Lastly, restitution of the damage. A criminal would be expected to make some sort of reparation for the damage they cause. If they break a window, they replace it. If they stale a car, they replace that. However, if a criminal takes a life, killing them doesn’t give them much of a chance to make reparations, does it? Rather, instead of killing them, put them to work, so that the remainder of their lives might be spent contributing to society so as to try and replace the life they took by producing as much as two people do. The final verdict on this topic, then, should not be one of support for the death penalty, but rather of opposition to it. It is more expensive, it is less effective, and above all, it is wrong. To continue to allow the death penalty is to continue to allow the states to wander around blind in search of a greater good for itself and its citizens.

Web – Based Library System

Overview of the Current State of Technology 1. 2. Local Literature De La Salle University Library System Migration: A Strategic Decision Library automation at DLSU-Manila had undergone a gradual but steady development. It started in 1985 when it implemented the MINISIS software/Hewlett Packard 3000 hardware package. The system was able to create 11,000 bibliographic records for Filipiniana and Reference collections. The massive hardware maintenance problem led to a management decision to phase out the system in 1988. At the later part of the same year MINISIS was replaced by its micro version known as CDS-ISIS.The software with one stand-alone XT computer facility automated the indexing of articles from more than 100 locally published periodicals including newspapers, magazines, and journals. Additional databases were created as the number of computers increased. The index became searchable simultaneously by several users when the computer facilities were networked in 1992. In the sa me year the CD-ROM technology was introduced for information retrieval of selected indexes and abstracts.Perla T. Garcia, Director of DLSU Library (2004) states the reasons for changes: * Technical Development and Vendor Stability Networking * Expansion of Databases â€Å"Despite the struggle the DLSU Library encountered in running the system during the first two years the circulation module was successfully implemented in February 1997. Toward the end of the decade the system was upgraded incorporating the suggestions made by the participating libraries. The new version was renamed T-Series which enhanced the loan process and improved the other information management functions of the earlier edition. † [1] The upgraded version of the system has become an inevitable feature at DLSU Library.However, when it was established that the vendor of the system has closed shop and has merged with another company, the University Library started to work on the future of the library syste m that can be considered to replace T-Series. These reasons are provided for the new system that will replace the T-series. Ateneo De Manila University Professional Library Information System The Library Information System uses a Local Area Network (LAN) for data retrieval handled by five file servers housed in the Intermediate Distribution Function Room (IDFR).Its resources can be accessed thru 24 client stations strategically distributed within the Library and other stations located in different offices in APS such as AHRC, CLE and the Dean of the Law School. In-house databases and commercial databases on CD-ROMs can be accessed by pressing the key letter guide displayed alongside each menu. In the Reference Services, the reference librarian also provides reference assistance to library clients in the most effective use of the library resources and services, aside from conducting guidance to legal bibliography for law students.To provide a plentiful supply of good and useful books in support of its academic curricula is the main goal of the library. Teresita C. Moran, APS Chief Librarian (2004) states the APS Library system features: Online Public Access Catalog This is a catalog where library books, theses, computer files, law materials housed at the Teehankee Library inclusive of uncatalogued but accessioned materials such as serials, law and business periodicals, cases decided by the Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, and Philippine laws. Features: Search limits to format (any,books, maps, computer files, etc. ) – Search limits to field (any title,author, subject, etc. ) – Use both simple and complex algorithm using Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc. ) -It provides user-controlled sort (by title,author,publisher, etc. ) – Work in conjunction with other modules – Provide safe environment to deal with potentially malicious users – Easily update for users convenience and accommodate their library needs – It provides sel ection and print options – Browse matches found in brief and full detail OPAC users are able to benefit greatly from up-to-date information – Patron can see actual Circulation status whether the item is on shelf, on loan, etc. – Password protected [2] WebPAC The Web Public Access Catalog is a guide to all the information sources to all the information sources of the library: books, compact discs, educational video tapes, theses, journals/serials, laws, legal cases and journal articles through simple search by author, title and subject.Features: – It enables the user to search any author, subject, title and publisher – Specify year from-to Get current information from the library’s local database – Includes matches found in your query – Full MARC record display – Applies to any standard internet browser (e. g. Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer) [3] The APS Library operates in an open stack set up. It adapted two ma jor systems of classifying book collections: first is the Library of Congress (LC) Classification system. This system is applied to Business and Information Technology holdings; second is the Los Angeles County Law Library Classifications (LACCLLC) scheme, which applies to the law holdings.Business and law journals are not classified as such but simply arranged alphabetically by title. The â€Å"The† code is the general classification used for both business and law theses. University of the Philippines iLib (Integrated Library System) â€Å"Technically, iLib is implemented in client-server architecture. In this configuration, all application programs run in the server (except for JavaScripts) and the user communicates with the server using a web browser, called the â€Å"thin client† in this architecture. No application is required to be installed in the user’s workstation other than the web browser to be able to use the system.All software updates, bug fixes, and enhancements are implemented in the server which can take effect immediately without requiring any updates or adjustments from the user’s end. † [4] Just like any common web-based systems, users can interact with the iLib system using a keyboard and mouse. Most interfaces in iLib require the user to key-in information in HTML forms using the keyboard and submit form data by clicking the â€Å"submit† buttons with a mouse. In most cases, hitting the â€Å"Enter† key (carriage return) from the keyboard can also trigger form submission.Arellano University Library System â€Å"The University Library comprises the following collections and services: Circulation Unit (foreign books on all fields of interest); Filipiniana Unit (books locally published in the Philippines, books written by Filipino author and books about the Philippines); Periodicals Unit (collection includes journals and magazines in various fields of interest); Reference Unit (collection of reference materials such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbook, almanac, geographical sources, etc. ; Audio-Visual Unit (a collection of audio-visual materials such as CD-ROM, VHS tapes & cassette tapes) and the Graduate School Unit (collection of books for post graduate level together with the thesis collection for reference purposes). As part of the library system, the adoption of computerized version of card catalog commonly known as OPAC (On-line Public Access Catalog) is used by the patrons as a medium of searching the library collection. † Arellano University library system offers different amenities and learning tools in comfortable environments which is intended for the greater benefit and convenience of its students.That is why they have improved their library with the use of OPAC to provide the users easiness and swiftly find what they are looking for. Far Eastern University Library System â€Å"The University Library is an indispensable educational and cultu ral repository. Refurbished and inaugurated on February 16, 1991 it has a book collection of more than 96,988 volumes and subscription to thousands of titles of magazines and journals in hard copies and in electronic format accessible through the EBSCO host Research Databases.The collection of books and other information resources fall under the following areas (easily accessible through the Online Public Access Catalog. † The FEU University Library aspires to be a leading academic information resource center and to be a dynamic partner in the University’s vision to develop responsible and well informed professionals who can contribute to the advancement of the global society. As usual nowadays, they provide an OPAC for easier researching of information from their libraries. 1. Foreign Literature Proposal for a University of Tennessee Digital Library Center James B. Lloyd (Special Collections Librarian and Chair, Digital Library Committee) and Bill Britten (Head of Libr ary Systems, John C. Hodges Library) (2001) states: â€Å"All students, faculty, and researchers would benefit in a variety of ways because the digital format broadens and deepens access exponentially. All of the digital library content would be available to any number of authorized users at one time, no matter their location.Materials would be available for distance research and distance education. Access to digital content could be provided in ways that are simply not possible in the traditional environment. Text can be available fully searchable through natural language, multimedia can be nested, references can be linked to other references, reference tools can be digitized and used to organize digital collections, etc. A digital library serves all of the constituents of the University in new and better ways by enhancing the research potential ofUniversity faculty on all campuses while also serving the needs of distance education. † [3] The DLC will be a catalyst for chang e by creating the organizational and technical building blocks that allow the campus to conceive of new ways of creating, accessing, and applying information resources to research and teaching. It will select, produce, and maintain a wide range of networked resources for scholars and students at UT and elsewhere.It will collaborate with University information technology professionals and research faculty to capitalize on institutional capabilities by focusing University resources on digital library projects that support the teaching and research of UT faculty, support the learning and research of UT students, and foster research about the digital library. An Intelligent Digital Library System for Biological Data Jeffrey E. Stone et al (2005) To make personalized service possible, a â€Å"user profile† representing the preferences of an individual user is constructed based upon past activities, goals indicated by the user, and options. Utilizing these user profiles, our system will make relevant information available to the user in an appropriate form, amount, and level of detail, and especially with minimal user effort. † [4] Due to the goal to serve the users better, a â€Å"user profile† is provided in the system. The user can personalized it and will have the ability to explore the system without much effort.It also allows the user to make feedbacks about the system, so that the system will know about the user’s areas of interest. The system is designed to act as a helper for the user who visits the digital library to find relevant information, with particular attention to the newly developed and modified documents in it. State University of New York Library System The Office of Library and Information Services in SUNY (1999) states their objectives about the library system.It includes: * Consortia-based capabilities such as union catalog and non-mediated requesting of library materials. * Excellent performance for all participati ng libraries. * Ability of the consortia to distribute the system across different servers, provide real-time mirroring of essential data, and permit the pooling of systems staff across the libraries. * The ability for the system to support the combined transaction load of SUNY libraries on all 64 campuses. A state-of-the-art integrated library system that provides access to public services, collection management, and technical services functions.* A system that enables each campus to view and maintain its own data with local control of profile and security configurations. * The ability to effectively convert data from the existing library systems into a new format that will preserve and insure its continued development and preservation, as well as the ability to migrate data to new generations of library systems. Allow for the integration of electronic resources that are made available through the SUNYConnect initiative (e. g. , bibliographic and full-text databases, image database s, electronic journals, etc. ). * To provide a means of, or an interface to, user authentication and user authorization vis-a-vis the SUNY-wide borrowing of library materials.* The ability to exploit emerging technologies and information resources to raise the level of library services, facilitate an increase in staff productivity, and improve effectiveness. 5] These objectives are made because SUNY is committed to providing exceptional library and information services to the university community by implementing an integrated library management system of superior functionality and cost efficiency. These are the type of functionality the SUNY libraries are seeking to incorporate. In short, this proposed system is part of the SUNYConnect virtual library initiative to provide access to the entire SUNY library collection via a common library management system and to enable patron-initiated remote borrowing.Harvard’s Library Digital Initiative: Building a First Generation Digital Library Infrastructure â€Å"Harvard University has funded a 5-year project to build a first generation production infrastructure to support digital library collections. Key project activities include education and consulting on core digital library issues (metadata, technical formats, reformatting, legal issues, preservation, interfaces and access), defining an overall technical framework, and the development of a core set of systems to support digital collections (catalogs and access tools, repositories, user interfaces, access management, and naming).A significant portion of the funding has been allocated to grants to University units for contents projects, intended to inform and test the developing infrastructure. † [6] Harvard University has a large and unusually decentralized library system. Information technology and shared information systems have been used increasingly in the past two decades to bring coherence to library services while maintaining the independence o f the University's hundred or so libraries.Two years ago a task force of faculty, librarians, and administrative deans proposed that the University administration fund a project to: (1) make Harvard's growing digital collections coherent and easy to use, through the development of a common framework and infrastructure, through communication and coordination, and through the use of incentives for collaborative work; (2) avoid wasteful duplicative development of digital library systems across the many independent departments of the University; (3) help curators build digital research collections through education, expert advice, the provision of core services, and the development of a technical infrastructure; and (4) integrate the new digital collections with Harvard's strong traditional collections. Tokyo University Library System â€Å"OPAC (Online Public Access Catalog) / Multilingual OPAC You can search the resources using the OPAC system for journals held in entire University l ibraries, and books acquired in/after 1985. They are currently in the process of incorporating the materials acquired before 1985 into their electronic system. † [7]The  University of Tokyo Library  in Tokyo, Japan, consists of the General Library, which provides services for all students and researchers affiliated with the university, Komaba Library, which supports the studies of the first two years of undergraduate education, Kashiwa Library, which functions as the back number center for natural science materials, as well as more than 60 faculty/institution libraries in various academic fields. The library has the largest collection in  Japan, holding a total of over 8,000,000 books. Using the OPAC, the students can easily find what they need for their research and studies. The university is still maintaining the system to improve the services to provide for the users.

Womens rights

History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations. Women’s Rights Over the centuries, women have faced numerous difficulties in a male supremacist infested society who places gender as the main determining element of human capacity. Despite the rise of liberal, secularist ideologies that express support for women’s rights in the 08th and 19th centuries, the problem remains chronic as there remain social prejudices and blind convictions on the weaknesses and shortcomings of women as members of society. . During the 50s, the media projected women as undignified citizens who do not have the right to exercise free will. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin recall Seventeen Magazine to have advised their readers about the role of women in a relationship. That the woman’s role was to function as partners and not rivals, enemies, and playthings, and that the relationship between women and men should create a heaven, a home that should serve as a place of sanctuary and peace (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 13). The 1960s proved, on the other hand, to be one of the biggest turning points of women’s rights in the United States and across the world. Apart from the emergence of the second wave of feminists, the Vietnam War provided opportunities for women to show their capabilities as members of the working class. The entrance of women to the realm of the paid labor force were led by women who at the time were over the 40-year old mark Despite such remarkable turn of events, women remained to be deemed as underrated second class citizens. Primarily, tradition norms hold that women should not be granted education and right to labor as their capabilities are not equal to those of their male counterparts. As a result, society failed to acknowledge the statistical proliferation of women in the labor sector because of traditional belief and practice. In doing so, society also failed to look at the fact that the entrance of women in the labor force meant that women as unrecognized members of society have finally broken the domestic ideal that women are supposed to show their supremacy as homemakers and housewives. For the African American woman however, the deprivation of rights were enveloped in the concepts of gender and ethnicity. While African-American women enjoyed the rights to having paid labor similar to those of their male counterparts, they were always compared to white women (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 26). And considering the rampant racial discrimination during the 20th century, the comparisons between African-American women and Caucasian women implied negativity. Likewise, the right to purity for African American women was among the most alarming concerns as the accepted norm regarding women who take pleasure for sensual activities were only ascribed to African American women. Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin (2000, 27) write that white American Writer Willie Morris was shocked by the fact that a woman of his own skin tone does actually enjoy sexual intercourse. Morris added more insult to injury as he denoted his personal thought that â€Å"only Negro women engaged in the act of love with white males just for fun (Isserman & Kazin, 2000, 27). † Women’s rights over the years have been hindered by male supremacists who only believed in the capabilities of their own ego. However, it has also been apparent that apart from gender, skin tone and other physical features are also factors that hinder women from proliferating and being part of a prejudice-free society. But putting all the obstacles that gender issues bring forth, such obstacles should not be the cause of disheartening but a beacon of hope that women would one day face a world free of blind prejudice and mindless conformity. Women’s Rights Women are increasingly under attack in Afghanistan as far as women’s rights are concerned. The Taliban overthrew the afghan government in 1996, and ruled from 1996-2001, and during that time; strict restrictions had been executed on women. Women and girls were not allowed to work or receive education. There was an exception to the rule if a woman was widowed, and had no other source of income, and then she could work. Women could not go outside, unless they were covered in a head to toe â€Å"burqua,† which is their traditional attire, and a male relative had to accompany them. The burqua only has a small mesh opening over the eyes allowing limited vision, and many of the women had been injured due to poor visibility. If a woman showed a bit of her ankle or had noisy shoes, she would be beaten. In addition, women had no voice, so they are were not allowed to speak in public. From puberty until death, women could only speak to men who were relatives. Once â€Å"The War on Terrorism† began, it gave the Afghan and Iraqi women hope to reform their nation and improve the social situation. The Taliban were chased from the country by U. S. military forces in 2001, and there have been some improvements in women’s rights concerning education and employment although many still suffer the hardships they did before the war. Most improvements have happened in major cites of Afghanistan such as Kabul, leaving rural areas with very much change at all. The police still enforce the wearing of the â€Å"burqua† by the women, but in Kabul, many professional women no longer wear the burqua, but many still do. According to a July 2003 Human Rights Watch report, the Southeast Afghanistan army and police practice of kidnapping, robbing and raping is so prevalent that women and girls are staying home as a means of protection. The fear of assault and political intimidation prevents the women and girls from gaining an education, employment and political influence. † (National Organization for Women, 2008) There is no abiding law and order in Afghanistan by the police o r local authorities. The NATO forces do not have enough manpower to offer protection. However, armed fathers, husbands and brothers do all they can to protect the women. Afghanistan is also known for child brides and marrying off girls as young as eleven to men in their thirties and even older. â€Å"True, women hold 27 percent of the seats in the National Assembly and one-sixth of the seats in the Upper House. But most Afghan women remain illiterate, impoverished and vulnerable to political and criminal violence. Only 15 percent of Afghan woman can read. The United Nations has described Afghan women as being â€Å"among the worst-off in the world. On average, women in Afghanistan die at least 20 years younger than women elsewhere. †(Women in Afghanistan, 2006) In Herat, which is Afghanistan’s second largest city, the government has given women and girls limited educational and employment opportunities. Women groups have been censored, and derailed from the governments’ administration. It is bad enough that the government is threatening womenâ₠¬â„¢s rights, but society has imposed other means by handing out pamphlets in communities encouraging parents not to send their daughters to school, and many of the girls schools have been firebombed and burned. Some girls have been poisoned to death for going to school. Parents that often deny education for their daughters, force their young girls into marriage. Girls are forced into marriage as young as eight years old. Other restrictions that Afghan women face as a violation of women’s rights is a ban on outside employment, strict dress code for women, very limited medical care, threats of violence if seen without a husband, father or male relative and rejection of humanitarian aid. Women are denied any share of humanitarian aid delivered to their country under the assumption that the men will take care of the women. Before the Taliban takeover in 1996, the Afghanistan women were scientist, members of parliament, cabinet members, and university professors. They led corporations, non-profit organizations and local communities. Many of these women are more than qualified to lead Afghanistan back to democracy. In November 2001, shockingly, Afghan women marched for their rights in Kabul. For the first time in more than six years, Afghan women rallied for their rights. Hillary Clinton established a campaign for women in Afghanistan and in 1999; she spoke out on their behalf about the abuse and the wearing of the burqua of the women in Afghanistan. Over the years, some schools have reopened in Afghanistan allowing boys and girls to attend. Several women have also been appointed or elected to important political roles. In the past five years, in the southern city of Kandahar at least five thousand women have graduated from special literacy courses, where they learned how to read and write and were taught skills such as dressmaking or computer knowledge. There is a woman minister of public health, a woman minister of women’s affairs and a woman heading the human rights commission. Women are also now able to travel more freely, and they have returned to work. Although progress is being made, there is still much more turmoil. â€Å"Registered cases of physical violence against women and girls in Afghanistan have increased by about 40 percent since March 2007. Some women seek escape by self-immolation, resulting in death or disfigurement. Last year, at least 30 women committed suicide in the western Farah Province alone, most of them by setting themselves on fire, according to Afghan media reports. † (Afghanistan Online, 2008) The Afghanistan government announced a plan to give nearly one third of jobs to women by 2012. I hope that this will lead to greater things, and that the women’s rights of Afghanistan will improve and that every woman will be included throughout the country, and they can move forward. Women’s Rights Womens rights History of women's rights See also: Legal rights of women in history and Timeline of women's rights (other than voting) China The status of women In China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding Involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long.The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and omen should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854-1927)[3] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China.Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women this College was located In Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851-1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social Greece The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the tlme. [8] In ancient Athens. omen had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. once married the husband became a woman's kyrlos. As omen were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [9] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. 10] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property[11] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a â€Å"medimnos of barley' (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. 9] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship In ancient Athens, though In rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender.No women ever acquired citizenship In ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded In principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [12] By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they njoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted and 40% of all Spartan land and By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.The unique thing about Patria Potestas was that it ad no age limits, according to Gaius a man could be consul, have a wife and children of his own and future prominence but as long as his father was alive was still under his potestas (power) and so could own nothing. Patria Potestas only ended with either the death of the father, or emancipation by him. Early in the Republic Manus Marriage ended the potestas for women, but during the middle and later Republic that form of marriage became rare, eventually disappearing completely.Marriage Under Law Rome had only two forms of marriage, and both had exactly the opposite view of legal effects. Manus Marriage was the earlier form of marriage and placed the woman under her husband's manus legally standing in the position of a daughter. Under this type of marriage women could own nothing, and had little if any legal protections. On the other hand a woman assumed the position of her husband's daughter in Manus Marriage making her agnatically instead of cognatically related to Manus, and was the opposite of Manus.Women married Sine Manu experienced no legal changes, so if her father was alive at time of marriage she continued to be his dependent and before the reign of Marcus Aurelius he could even force an end to he marriage. The lack of any legal change of status for the women meant that (provided their father had either died or emancipated them) they could own property, conduct most forms of business, and divorce her husband (without any reason needed). Legally speaking the only lack of independence a woman in Rome experienced in a marriage without Manus was from her fathe r.The only legal issue related to marriage was dowry. A dowry was not required by law, but was usually provided by a father or if a father was nonexistent it would be whatever the bride wished to come out of her own estate. It was administered by the husband, but in the vent of a divorce he was required to provide either the dowry or the equivalent of it back to his wife. In the case of adultery, husbands got to keep portions of the dowry. Politics Legally speaking women were banned from politics.As with freedmen and slaves of the Imperial Family women of the imperial family gained some benefits from the fall of the Republic, but because the nature of the Principate was to hide dictatorship such power had to be subtle and kept out of the public eye when possible. The ban on women and politics was they could not vote or run for office (sine suffragio) enlist n the army, or represent somebody else in court, women speaking their minds was not considered politics and so some women like Hortensia managed to make appearances in politics without violating the law.Inheritance Rights Everyone under the potestas of another had equal rights of inheritance under Roman Law, and wills that did otherwise ran risks of being challenged and invalidated as negligent. Stoic Influence Stoic philosophies had a strong effect on the development of law in ancient Rome. The Roman stoic thinkers Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of Just elationships (not to be confused with equality in society, or even equality) arguing that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously (a vague concept).Therefore they argued that men and women have an equal need for philosophical education. [20] Stoic theories entered Roman law first through the Roman lawyer and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero and the influence of stoicism and philosophy increased while the status of women improved under the Empire. [21] Religious scriptures Bible See Women in the Bible â€Å"Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. (Genesis 3:20) â€Å"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. † Oudges 4:4) God chose a woman, Deborah, to lead Israel.Qur'an The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. feminism, and Sex segregation and Islam The Qur'an, revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provide guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam, the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and ntroduced rights for women in marriage, divorce and inheritance.By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contra ct. [citation needed] While in customary law inheritance was limited to male descendents, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. 22] According to Annemarie Schimmel â€Å"compared to he pre-lslamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work. â€Å"[23] The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [24] Women were generally given greater rights than women in pre-lslamic Arabia[25][26] and medieval Europe. [27] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. 28] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt, when seen in uch historical context, Muhammad â€Å"can be seen as a fgure who testified on behalf of women's rights. â€Å"[29] The Middle Ages According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced.French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [30] In the 16th entury, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [31] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a pat riarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. 32] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [33] 18th and 19th century Europe The Debutante (1807) by Henry Fuseli; The woman, victim of male social conventions, is tied to the wall, made to sew and guarded by governesses. The picture reflects Mary Wollstonecraft's views in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. [34] Starting in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, rights, as a concept and claim, gained increasing political, social and philosophical importance in Europe.Movements emerged which demanded freedom of religion, the abolition of slavery, rights for women, rights for those who did not own property and universal to political debates in both France and Britain. At the time some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, who defended democratic principles of equality and challenged notions that a privileged few should rule over the vast majority of the population, believed that these principles should be applied only to their own gender and their own race.The philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau for example thought that it was the order of nature for woman to obey men. He wrote â€Å"Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws† and claimed that â€Å"when she tries to usurp our rights, she is our First page of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen In 1791 he French playwright and political activist Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,[37] modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.The Declaration is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that: â€Å"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society'. The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen ollows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as â€Å"almost a parody†¦ f the original document†. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that â€Å"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. † The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: â€Å"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility'.De Gouges expands the sixth article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which declared the rights of citizens to take part in the formation of law, to: Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker â€Å"All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents†. De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights. 8] Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations.

Duke Ellington

Edward Kennedy â€Å"Duke† Ellington (April 29, 1899 – May 24, 1974) was an American composer, pianist, and bandleader. Duke Ellington was thought to be one of the most influential figures in jazz, if not in all American music. After his death in 1974, he became even more popular. He even received a special award citation from the Pulitzer Prize Board. Ellington called his music â€Å"American Music† rather than jazz. He liked to describe those who impressed him as â€Å"beyond category†. Those belonging to this group included many of the musicians who served with his orchestra. Some of his band members were among the giants of jazz and performed with Ellington's orchestra for decades. It was Duke Ellington, however, who melded them into one of the most well-known orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals. Some of these songs included â€Å"Jeep's Blues† for Johnny Hodges, â€Å"Concerto for Cootie† (â€Å"Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me†) for Cootie Williams and â€Å"The Mooche† for Tricky Sam Nanton. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's â€Å"Caravan† and â€Å"Perdido† which brought the â€Å"Spanish Tinge† to big-band jazz. After 1941, he began to collaborate with composer-arranger Billy Strayhorn. Ellington often referred to Billy Strayhorn as his â€Å"alter-ego†. Duke Ellington is considered one of the 20th century's best-known artists. He also recorded for many American record companies, and appeared in several films. Ellington and his orchestra toured the United States and Europe regularly before and after World War II. He led his band from 1923 until his death in 1974. His son, Mercer Ellington, continued touring with the band until his death from cancer in 1996. Paul Ellington, Mercer's youngest son, took over the orchestra in 1996. After his mother's passing, Paul Ellington took over the estate of Duke and Mercer Ellington. Duke Ellington

Coherence and Cohesion

COHERENCE AND COHESION ========================================================== Abstract This paper discusses that a meaningful English text is always coherent. Also, the role of cohesion in a coherent English text is discussed in the light of literature. In order to further understand the significance of cohesion in discourse, we have analysed two English texts; a poem, ‘Daffodils' by William Wordsworth and an advertisement from a UK website gumtree. co. uk. A report is then developed on the textual analysis, which discusses that different genres have different elements that bring coherence.However, it is noticed that lexical cohesion forms strong cohesive ties and bring coherence in case of both the texts analysed. The paper argues that although cohesion is an important aspect of developing a coherent text, yet coherence is also possible without cohesion. Key words: Coherence, Cohesion, Text, Discourse, Analysis 1. INTRODUCTION The focus of this paper is to review the conce pt of coherence and the importance of cohesion in coherent texts. Coherence and cohesion are important aspects of language structure and knowledge of the usage of the two devices is essential for the scholars who write in English.Therefore, this paper has special significance for the readership of this journal as this paper helps understand the two concepts through their application. It tries to make the concepts interesting and easily grasped by the South Asian readers, through textual analysis of two simple texts. The paper also brings forth the importance of some other devices, apart from cohesion, in developing a coherent English text; these are also investigated in the sections discussing coherence. Firstly, we will introduce the terms cohesion and coherence as used in discourse analysis.Coherence is the device which identifies a text (a passage that forms a unified whole), spoken or written, in any language. On the other hand, cohesion is only one of the various elements which help forming coherent discourse. Cohesion provides relationship between different items of discourse in a text. Coherence is a semantic relation, so is cohesion. Coherence is possible when cohesive devices, grammatical and lexical, combine to give meaning to the text by connecting it to a social context. Most importantly, a coherent text can be found without any cohesive ties used.In the following sections, we will be discussing scholarly view on the two terms in some detail. We will then consider and clarify our position with regard to cohesion and its role in the coherent text. Later in this paper, we will be analysing the coherence (including, of course, the cohesion) in two pieces of discourse. The report on the comparison between the two analyses will follow. Finally, we will summarize the entire argument in the conclusion. 2. COHERENCE Every unified piece of discourse is a coherent set of sentences.Davies (2005) explains the idea of a text when she says, â€Å"not all sequen ces of sentences form texts- they have to be coherent sequences†. Thus she marks coherence as an identity of a text. Halliday and Hassan (1976) followed by McCarthy (1991) and Paltridge (2006) used the term texture or textuality for coherence. Paltridge (2006) writes that the texture of a text can be obtained where various items are tied together to provide meaning to the text which in turn relate to the social context in which the text occurs. Hassan (1989:71; cited in Paltridge, 2006:130) describes texture as ‘a matter of meaning relations’.Brown and Yule (1983) explain that in a coherent text the meaning is clear and the various fragments of the text seem connected either with or without cohesive devices. Hatch (1992) defines that the textual coherences can be obtained only if the communication system, the social norms and restrictions, language scripts for particular speech acts, suitable for particular speech events are all considered carefully. Thus, Brown a nd Yule (1983) and Hatch (1992) clearly mention that, apart from cohesive ties, there are other elements involved in obtaining coherence.The various elements (excluding cohesion) involved in a coherent text, as noted by discourse analysts, include, context, schema, subtext and exophoric reference. Every text has a context, says Paltridge (2006). He finds that a context of the situation is essential to understand what is meant by what is said. He includes physical and social context and the mental world of the people involved in a discourse to be crucial in interpreting and understanding the meaning. McCarthy (1991) discusses the role of context but he warns about mixing it with co-text (the text surrounding a lexical item), which he mentions to be only a part of the roader term, ‘context’. Hatch (1992), however, discusses context under the heading of deixis. Deixis, according to him, are ‘linguistic markers that have a pointing function in a given discourse contex t’. He, thus, discusses that person, spatial, temporal, discourse and social deixis describe the context of a text. Davies (2005) also mentions the role of context and subtext (reading between the lines) as important to the coherence of any text. McCarthy (1991:168) describes schema as ‘the role of background knowledge’ in understanding the text.According to him, schemata involve two kinds of knowledge; the knowledge of the world (content schemata) and the knowledge of the different forms of the text (formal schemata). Some scholars including Halliday and Hassan (1976) include exophoric reference in the cohesive device of reference; I have also discussed it there. 3. COHESION Halliday and Hassan (1976) were the first significant writers on the subject (cohesion). They drew the attention towards the importance of cohesion which, for them, refers to ‘the range of possibilities that exist from linking something with what has gone before’.Halliday and Ha ssan continue that one of the items in the cohesive pair cannot be completely and effectively understood without consulting the other and both of these form important part of the text. Most other writers on the subject then explained the term following Halliday and Hassan. Zamel (1983) finds the role of the cohesive devices to be crucial as they can turn separate expression into a unified whole by developing relationships between those separate expression. Cook (1989) defines cohesive devices as formal links between sentences and clauses.Dubin and Olshtain (1980:356; cited in Zamel, 1983) remark, ‘The most important characteristic of cohesion is the fact that it does not constitute a class of items but rather a set of relations'. A similar, rather more comprehensive view, is given by Halliday and Hassan that cohesion is a semantic relation and therefore, is independent of grammatical structure, for example, sentence boundaries etc. To this, Steffensen (1986) added that the int ersentential ties are more important than the intrasentential ties.The reason behind this is, of course, that there are no other structural relations present between sentences, as are present within a sentence. Halliday and Hassan have explained this idea, before Steffensen, as; the cohesive ties between sentences are more noticeable than those within a sentence because in a sentence there are other sources of texture as well. 3. 1 Various Cohesive Devices Halliday and Hassan (1976) discuss Cohesion under five heads, reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.But according to them, cohesion can be broadly classified as grammatical (reference, substitution, ellipsis) and lexical (reiteration, collocation). Halliday and Hassan keep conjunction on the borderline of the grammatical and lexical cohesion with the greater tilt on the grammatical side. Similar views are shared by Steffensen (1986), Hatch (1992:223) and Paltridge (2006:130). Following Halliday and Ha ssan, we will also be reviewing literature under the same five heads. Reference, in the words of Paltridge (2006), is the identity that an item of discourse reclaims through another item within or without the text.Referencing device, as noted by Cook (1989), usually, forms a chain that links the expressions through the text. He exemplifies this as, Pineapple†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. it†¦. Halliday and Hassan (1976) also present a similar definition with a further explanation that when one item of the language appears second time in the discourse that is the continuity of reference. Salkie (1995) explains referents (‘it’ in the above example) as the words which do not have a complete meaning on their own, they always refer to something. Considering the same, Brown and Yule (1983) suggest the term co-reference for reference.Salkie (1995), as well as Hatch (1992), agree with Halliday and Hass an over the three types of cohesive references i. e. personal, demonstrative and comparative references. Apart from this, Halliday and Hassan remark that when the interpretation for the references is present in the text, it is called an endophoric reference, and when the interpretation lies outside the text, it is an exophoric reference. Halliday and Hassan further divide endophoric reference into anaphoric reference (looks back into the text) and cataphoric reference (looks forward into the text).Brown and Yule (1983) agree with Halliday and Hassan in their description of these terms. McCarthy (1991), however, discards exophoric referents as truly cohesive because they are not the internal part of the text. While Halliday and Hassan explain that they play a role in the understanding of the text so they are cohesive. On the contrary, Paltridge (2006) introduces another reference pattern too, that is, homophoric reference, for items which recover their identity through cultural knowl edge. Substitution, simply, is ‘the replacement of one item by another’ remark Halliday and Hassan (1976).They find substitution to be a cohesive relation between wordings and not between the meanings, as is reference. Hatch (1992) notes that Levinson (1983) claims substitutions to be deictic markers. But Hatch agrees with Halliday and Hassan that the substitution and the group of words substituted form a cohesive tie. Salkie (1995) notifies that only some specific words can be used for the purpose of substitution. And Halliday and Hassan (1976) present the following list of substitutes: Nominal: one, ones; same Verbal: do Clausal: so, notIn addition, Halliday and Hassan also observe that sometimes substitution, also, borders with lexical cohesion, that is where words like ‘thing’ are used for the cohesive purposes. Substitutions thus hold very important cohesive function, as Cook (1989) mentions that the brief forms of the sentences with substitutions are more authentic than the longer sentences without substitutions. Ellipsis, the third type of cohesive marker, as named by Hatch (1992), is a zero tie. Halliday and Hassan (1976) call it substitution by zero.Actually there is no tie in ellipsis and nothing substitutes but of course, like substitution, here too, something is left unsaid. Salkie (1995) makes it clear that every unsaid or left out expression cannot be considered an example of ellipsis. On the contrary, he writes, ellipsis is a gap or unsaid information that is known to the listener/reader of the text already, as it refers back to something already said. Cook (1989) shares a similar view with Salkie when Cook says that we can omit only when we are sure that the meaning can be understood without it.McCarthy (1991) also holds the same idea and he adds to it by mentioning that ellipsis is completely ‘a speaker choice made on a pragmatic assessment of the situation, not a compulsory feature when two clauses are joined t ogether’. McCarthy (1991) notes that, in English, substitution and ellipsis are similar as the former like the latter operates on nominal, verbal and clausal level. This view is shared by Halliday and Hassan (1976), Hatch (1992) and Salkie (1995). Conjunctions can be defined best in the words ofCook (1989) as, the words which draw attention towards the relationships between sentences, clauses and words. McCarthy (1991) places conjunction among the grammatical cohesive devices, despite accepting it to be different from reference, substitution and ellipsis. He says, though it does refer to something backward or forward in the text, it still provides a relationship between the fragments of the language. A similar view is shared by Halliday and Hassan (1976) that conjunctive ties are ‘cohesive not in themselves’, but by their meaning, they point at other elements in the discourse.However, unlike McCarthy, Halliday and Hassan, followed by Steffensen (1986), Hatch (199 2) and Paltridge (2006), do not believe conjunctions to be completely grammatical. Halliday and Hassan (1976) observe that conjunctions can be classified in different ways, focusing different aspects. They, then, present additive, adversative, causal and temporal as four, commonly accepted, types of conjunctive relation. Hatch (1992) also presents the similar distribution. Martin and Rose (2003; cited in Paltridge, 2006:139) use the term consequential for causal.Although Salkie (1995) also gives the same four types of conjunction, yet he uses different terminology; he calls them addition connectives, opposition connectives, cause connectives and time connectives. Besides, he uses the term connective for conjunction. Lexical cohesion is a relationship between vocabulary items in the text. In the words of Paltridge (2006:133), â€Å"Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between lexical items in a text and, in particular, content words and the relationship between themâ € .Hatch (1992) notes that some lexical ties are long, as they are spread over larger pieces of discourse, and others are short. Reiteration and collocation are marked as two major types of lexical cohesion by Halliday and Hassan (1976). McCarthy (1991), however, does not seem to be convinced by Halliday and Hassan’s inclusion of collocation among the devices of lexical cohesion. He does not find that collocation can present a semantic relation between various items of discourse as other cohesive markers do. Unlike McCarthy, Hatch (1992) finds collocation to be an important element for building text cohesion.So does Paltridge (2006), who says, that expert writers of the language know which items can collocate. Lexical collocation, grammatical collocation and idiomatic collocation are found in discourse. McCarthy (1991) defines reiteration as restating a word (or a phrase) by either direct repetition or using the lexical relations for that word (for example, synonyms, anton yms, hypernyms, meronyms etc). Salkie (1995) explains that the repetition of the content words brings cohesion; what he says of repetition is true for all the lexical devices.Making a decision regarding the usage of various lexical items is only a matter of understanding the importance of different lexical relations. McCarthy (1991) observes that the speaker/writer has to decide whether to repeat, or use a synonym or a super ordinate etc, because discourse analysts have not yet given any satisfactory rules for that. 3. 2 Relation between Coherence and Cohesion Halliday and Hassan (1976) refer to cohesion as being a source of coherence. But Carrell (1982) strongly disagrees with them on that view. She finds cohesion to be nothing more than a result of coherence.Carrell quotes Morgan and Sellner (1980) who also find Halliday and Hassan to be mistaking. Morgan and Sellner explain that when Halliday and Hassan are mentioning that a referent refers back or forth to something in the text, it is not something in the text actually but something in the context, from which the reader and the hearer understands what the speaker/writer is talking about. Carrell herself is also supporting the idea by Morgan and Sellner and believes it to be the content and not the cohesion between the expressions which bring coherence to the text.In the commonly quoted example by Halliday and Hassan: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. Carrell finds that them in the second sentence does not refer to the apples in the first sentence but some real world apples. Brown and Yule (1983) present a more convincing argument against Halliday and Hassan that the apples, in the first sentence, are as they were brought from the market while those in the second sentence are washed and cored apples and therefore not the same as in the first sentence.They argued similarly for the other cohesive devices like substitution and ellipsis. Brown and Yule (1983) observe that some pi eces of discourse, can be said to be unconnected due to lack of cohesive devices, but they still form coherent text (for example; advertisements, brochures etc) because different genres of discourse have different criteria of coherence. Where Carrell fully ignores the importance of cohesion in coherence, Brown and Yule at least agree that different genres of text demand different criteria of coherence.Hatch (1992) sounds more acceptable, when he says that the knowledge of script, speech events and rhetorical organisation usually results in a coherent text but sometimes, we need to make use of cohesive ties and deictic markers to guide the listener/reader through the text. The formal links (cohesive devices), according to Cook (1989) also, are not enough or necessary for a text. He means to say that there can be a text without them and there can even be an incoherent piece with them. He as well as Salkie (1995) holds the understanding of the context as more important.Davies (2005) cl arifies all the misconceptions, â€Å"coherence does not have to depend on logical internal links and familiar patterns of organisation- it also has a lot to do with how we interpret the language we read or hear†. To conclude, the argument let us quote McCarthy (1991) who says, all discourse markers including cohesive markers are concerned with the text on the surface level. He, like Davies, marks that the interpretation is the key that the listener/reader uses to understand what the speaker/writer has tried to say by utilising both above and below the surface available devices.Therefore, cohesion is not a criterion for coherence yet it is an important element in some genres of discourse. 4. TEXT ANALYSIS After reviewing the scholars on coherence, cohesion, cohesive devices and relation between coherence and cohesion, we are, now, turning to analyse two written texts; the poem ‘Daffodils’ by William Wordsworth (see Appendix-A for the original text) and a job adve rtisement that we found on www. gumtree. co. uk (see Appendix-B for the original text).After this, we will present the report on whether cohesion is required or just the context, schema, sub-text and exophoric reference are enough for coherence in these two genres of discourse. 4. 1 Analysis of the Poem ‘Daffodils’ Firstly, we are going to analyse the poem, from the different perspectives of coherence. We will start with the context. 4. 1. 1 Context The very first word ‘I’ tells us that the speaker or the poet is sharing a personal experience. ‘Wandered’, being the second form of the verb, clears that the incident that is quoted in the poem has ended.It is one of the experiences of the poet when he saw a beautiful scene and now he is describing the scene and is discussing the pleasure it has been giving him since the time he has first seen it. The text belongs to the place where there is a lake, there are trees and most importantly, there are d affodils. Thus the poet is recollecting his memory of a beautiful outdoor scene when he was caught by the sight of golden daffodils. The poet mentions that he was alone at that time. The beauty of the scene has been deep-rooted in the memory of the poet.The memory of the flowers works as an effective tranquiliser at the time when the poet is worried or sad. Coherence, here, operates the relationship of a poet to the natural world of beauty. It exemplifies how a poet, who is alone (no other human being around), is enjoying the company of the flowers and can enjoy that of other objects of nature. He is enjoying the beauty even when he is away from it and even when he feels sad, may be due to the problems of the material world. 4. 1. 2 SchemaIt is sure since the beginning that the poet is somewhere outside his home because it is very unlikely that somebody moves around in his house and say â€Å"I wandered lonely as a cloud. † It is also unlikely that the poet is in the market o r some other busy area and claim to be wandering like a cloud because the schemata, in both the mentioned situations, would have suggested some different social norms. Therefore, from the beginning the reader starts to interpret that the poet is alone in some lonely place. 4. 1. 3 SubtextOne can judge that it is the day time that is why the poet can see so many daffodils, which are spread along the bank of the river. Besides, he mentions â€Å"the waves besides them danced†, which can be noticed only during the day time. In dark one can see waves only if they are harsh and roaring, which can of course never attract the calm and peaceful nature of a poet. And since it is breezy, it can be the morning time, not the noon, afternoon or evening. The pleasantness of the weather can easily be found from the mood of the poet. It seems as if it is some breezy summer morning. Oft† notifies that the poet also feels sad and empty at times, he also has worries of life like other hum an beings. But then unlike an ordinary man, these flowers come to the rescue of the poet from the worries of the world. 4. 1. 4 Exophoric Reference There is some exophoric knowledge of the concept of â€Å"inward eye† required. The poet assumes the reader, who will be decoding the text of the poem, must already be aware with this schema. After context, schema, sub-text and exophoric reference, now, I will analyse the role of various cohesive ties in bringing the coherence to the poem.First of all, we are going to for the referential cohesion. 4. 1. 5 Referential Cohesion The pronominal references, running through the text, have anaphoric links and they were all endophoric except the exophoric reference â€Å"that inward eye† (discussed earlier). Pronominal cohesion depends largely on the anaphoric link to the first word of the text I (I, I, me, my, I). Amongst the other anaphoric personal references there is a cohesive chain of â€Å"they† and â€Å"them† (used for Daffodils) throughout the poem.The pronoun â€Å"that† is used for the word cloud in the first stanza and for the word stars in the second. Also, â€Å"which† in the last stanza is pronominal and is used for inward eye. There is an example of demonstrative cohesion also i. e. â€Å"my† in the phrase my heart. Comparative reference plays a part in introducing the situation in the first line of the poem, I wandered lonely as a cloud in which there is a comparison drawn between the poet and the cloud. Comparative reference is also present in the following line where daffodils are compared with stars, Continuous as the stars that shineThere is a single example of nominal substitution through the words the show, which refers to the dancing daffodils and their company (the waves etc). Clausal ellipsis is found in following three examples: ______ fluttering and dancing _____tossing their heads, a poet could not______ but ______be gay ______continuous as star s that shine While nominal ellipsis is clear in these three: And _______twinkle on the milky way Ten thousand ______ saw I at a glance And ______dances with the daffodils 4. 1. 6 Conjunction The poem contains some variety of conjunction also.Additive Conjunctions â€Å"and†, â€Å"or†, adversative conjunction â€Å"but† and temporal conjunctions â€Å"oft†, â€Å"then† are found in the text. 4. 1. 7 Lexical Cohesion Throughout the poem, I can see words like â€Å"twinkle†, â€Å"sprightly†, â€Å"sparkle† spread which form a sense group, such reiteration shows that the situation in the poem is lively, excited and pleasure-giving. Synonymy is present among the words â€Å"crowd† and â€Å"host† (both in the first stanza) as the terms are contextual synonyms. So is the case with â€Å"shine† and â€Å"twinkle† (both in the second stanza), and â€Å"lake† (in the first stanza) and â€Å"bay† (in the second stanza).Other sense group is formed by â€Å"fluttering†, â€Å"dancing† and â€Å"tossing their heads†. A small chain of words related to the notion of happiness is spread around the third stanza â€Å"glee†, â€Å"gay†, â€Å"jocund†. Repetition is found through the forms of the word â€Å"dance† (dancing, dance, danced, dances). The words â€Å"gazed† is repeated twice. A number of lexical collocations (contextually appropriate) can be found, for example: â€Å"over valleys and hills†, â€Å"never-ending line†, â€Å"beside the lake†, â€Å"beneath the trees†, â€Å"at a glance†.Whereas â€Å"out did† and â€Å"flash upon† are grammatical collocations present within the text. The analysis of this text shows that besides other devices of coherence, cohesion also plays an important role in bringing the coherence to the text. We cannot think of the above poem wi thout the cohesive ties. 4. 2 Analysis of the Advertisement Now we are going to analyse the second text which is a job advertisement (see Appendix-B). Here too we start with the analysis with the context. 4. 2. 1 ContextThe first line suggests that it is something related to the business but it is only in the fourth line that one realises that it is an advertisement for the post of â€Å"Business development support†. And even in the next line, the reader comes to know that it is a job advertised by â€Å"Metro Safety†. â€Å"We† in the new paragraph shows the management of Metro Safety or the company has advertised this job. The second line mentions the date on which the advertisement is posted so it clarifies whether it is old or new. And the name of the company and the location of the office present the place of work.The objectives for the job and the mentioned requirements clear who can apply for the advertisement. Therefore the context is clear after readin g the whole of it that it is a job opportunity for all those who have the required experience etc. The ‘how to do the follow up? ’ part is made clear by the last sentence which guides how to apply. 4. 2. 2 Schema By the opening of the text we start to recognise the schema. It is without doubt an advertisement which is written to attract professionals. Just in the beginning schema provide the strong suggestion for the post, the salary and location of the work.The text is schematically clear and therefore it does not bring any possible alternative schemata into question. 4. 2. 3 Subtext We realise that it is not a regular text but an advertisement. Since the advertisement is posted on the mentioned date therefore the job seeker can apply within few days of it. Though it is not mentioned yet the job is provided on the first come basis, because there is no specific date for interviews, etc, mentioned, therefore whoever will be the first to fulfil the criteria will be given the job.The job seeker must be a resident of London, and in case of a city like London, he must be living somewhere around Waterloo. 4. 2. 4 Exophoric Reference â€Å"Friday, 6th June† is mentioned in the advertisement; the reader should have the exophoric knowledge of which year’s 6th June is the advertisement about. Besides the reader must know that Waterloo (mentioned in the advertisement as the location of work) is an area in London and not the place of the Battle of Waterloo. Following is the analysis of the second text for cohesive devices. 4. 2. 5 Referential CohesionThe pronominal endophoric references â€Å"we† and â€Å"our† refer to the Metro Safety, the company which has given the advertisement. And â€Å"you† refers to the reader or anyone who is interested in the job. But â€Å"someone† in â€Å"we are looking for someone† is an exophoric reference because it is not the reader or any aspirant for the job who is reading t he advertisement and is going to apply, rather it is someone they are looking for, he can be anyone of the readers or even no one of them. â€Å"This† in â€Å"this role† and â€Å"this position† is a demonstrative reference. Nominal ellipsis is present in the following: lease _____ apply; While clausal ellipsis can be found in the following: and _____ assists Accounts Managers, _____ increase, _____ smooth, _____ to provide, _____ provide Language in India www. languageinindia. com 12 : 5 May 2012 Ambreen Shahriar and Habibullah Pathan Coherence and the Role of Cohesion in Coherent Texts 384 Besides, ellipsis is done through points given in bullets (. ). 4. 2. 6 Conjunction The conjunction â€Å"and† has been used repeatedly in the text. Temporal conjunction â€Å"between† is present in the phrase â€Å"between ? 16,800 and ? 20,160 per annum†.The additive conjunction â€Å"in addition† is also used, and â€Å"+†, in â€Å"+ company bonus† also acts as an additive conjunction. 4. 2. 7 Lexical Cohesion In the text, there is a chain of office related words, â€Å"business†, â€Å"company†, â€Å"bonus†, â€Å"commercial†, â€Å"client†, â€Å"head office†, â€Å"account managers†, â€Å"project managing†, â€Å"service departments†, â€Å"site†, â€Å"administrative supports†, â€Å"management team†, â€Å"customer†. The terms like; â€Å"increase†, â€Å"necessary†, â€Å"high quality†, â€Å"skills†, â€Å"experience†, â€Å"excellent† form a sense group which explains the demands of the employer from the employee.The word â€Å"client† presents an example of repetition and seems to be the key term in the text, it is used four times. The examples of meronymy are spread throughout the text. â€Å"Client†, â€Å"services team†, â€Å"account manag ers†, â€Å"project managing†, â€Å"internal departments†, â€Å"service departments†, â€Å"management team†, â€Å"customer focus†, â€Å"company bonus†; with â€Å"business† as the super ordinate. Besides, â€Å"communication skills (verbal and written)†, â€Å"information gathering and organisational skills†, â€Å"problem solving skills† and â€Å"IT literacy† can be considered as the hypernyms for skills/knowledge.Lexical cohesion can also be witnessed through phrases like, â€Å"health and safety†, â€Å"busy and friendly†, â€Å"new and existing†. There is grammatical collocation of the phrasal verbs like, â€Å"based at†, â€Å"set up† and â€Å"looking for†. Lexical collocations can also be identified within the text, for example: â€Å"head office†, â€Å"account managers†, â€Å"high quality†, â€Å"communicational skillsâ₠¬ , â€Å"organizational skills†, â€Å"problem solving skills†, â€Å"sales team†, â€Å"company bonus†, â€Å"per annum†. After the analyses of the texts, we are going to present the report on them in the next section. . REPORT In the report, firstly, we are going to compare the two texts in accordance with the findings. Though the poet, in the first text, clears the context from the first line, but it can be cleared only after reading the last lines and then pondering over all that is written. Whereas in the advertisement, the context starts to get clearer from the fourth line, when it comes to the offer of salary and one realises that it is a job advertisement, but immediately after that the context is clear and reader does not have to read between the lines.Both the texts are schematically clear yet they are completely different from each other. The writers of the two texts have made greatest efforts to keep the schema clear but in variant st yles and this is what proves a difference in the different genres of writing. There are some elements of the sub-text in both the texts. The readers of both the texts have to read between the lines and understand a few hidden ideas on their own, but the nature of such ideas in both these texts is very different. Some exophoric knowledge is required for complete understanding of each text.Here, also, the exophoric knowledge in case of the poem is of emotional and spiritual nature while in case of the advertisement it is of material and worldly nature. As in the poem, so is in the advertisement, most of the pronominal references were endophoric in nature with anaphoric cohesion. The examples of demonstrative cohesion are rare in both the texts. There seems no example of comparative reference in the advertisement. Unlike this, the comparative cohesive devices are widely used in the analysed poem. As comparative references are usually common in the poetry, so are they here.But they are not welcome in advertisements. The analysis showed that substitution is a rare phenomenon in these types of texts. It does not appear to be common in poetry or advertises. Both of these are the examples of smaller texts but in spite of that substitution is not common in these two. Nominal as well as clausal ellipsis seems to be among the favourites of the two writers (of poem and advertisement). Ellipsis can be considered as a common practice of the writers of such texts. Conjunctions are found evenly spread in both the texts with a greater emphasis on â€Å"and† in both the texts.Few small sense groups are present in the poetry, while two long sense chains are present in the advertisement. Formation of sense groups is an essential quality of an advertisement but not a poem. Repetitions are also found in both the texts which, of course, emphasize the most important word in the text. Synonymy can be found in the poem only. It is a special quality of something literary and it i s used to give music to the meaning of the text. But antonymy is missing in both the texts. Hyponymy and meronymy are absent in the poem by Wordsworth but both are present in the advertisement.This explains the difference between the two types of the text. The poem is a short text which has to say a lot whereas an advertisement is a short text which has to say a little but has to make it completely clear. Lexical and grammatical collocations are present in both the texts but idiomatic collocation is missing. Idiomatic collocation is found in longer pieces of writing, and are uncommon in poetry and advertisements, even otherwise. After comparing the two texts, it can be noticed that since the two belong to different genres, their dependence on the various elements, which are responsible for coherence, is also different.Yet cohesive ties, especially lexical cohesion, form important links which in turn provide coherence to both the texts. 6. CONCLUSION Through this paper, we have discu ssed the terms coherence and cohesion. We mentioned that other elements of discourse, besides cohesion, can also help in the development of a coherent text in English. We also mentioned the varying views of the scholars regarding the importance and role of cohesion in the development of a coherent discourse.We made our point clear by quoting Davies and McCarthy, who note that it mainly depends on the interpretation besides accepting that the importance of cohesion in some genres of discourse is undeniable. Through the analysis of the two texts belonging to two different genres, we tried to explain what brings coherence in each of the selected genres. Then, we presented the report on the analyses. Therefore, cohesion, of course, is not the only source of bringing coherence to a text yet it is one of the important aspects of coherence. ============================================================= ReferencesBrown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP. Carrell, P. L. 1982. ‘Cohesion is not coherence,’ TESOL Quarterly 16(4): 479-88. Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. Oxford: OUP. Davies, D. 2005. Varieties of Modern English: An Introduction. 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